Tel Motza

Figurines of a person (Photo: Clara Amit, courtesy Israel Antiquities Authority)

On Boxing Day the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced the discovery of  a temple complex at Tel Motza just west of Jerusalem. The site dates to the first temple period prior to purges of Hezekiah and Josiah. The full press release can be read here.

The Nativity

The story of the birth of the Savior is one of the most beloved of all accounts in the scriptures. It is reenacted each Christmas season and millions of homes around the world display a creche or nativity scene to remember the sacred events that occurred when the Savior was born. Aside from being a nice story told to children at Christmas time the accounts recorded by the Gospel writers are heavily symbolic and teach many truths of the role of the Savior in the great plan of our Heavenly Father.

In her book Christmas, the Original Story, Margaret Barker argues that Luke and Matthew chose which details to include about the birth of Jesus Christ to teach their readers about the identity and mission of the Savior. Included below are some of the items she discusses in her book.

Mary

Barker mentions that the Protoevangelium of James tells us that Mary was engaged in weaving a new veil for the temple while she was pregnant with the Savior. The temple veil was composed of the same materials as the tunic which was worn by the temple high priest. This tunic was understood by the Israelites to represent the mortal flesh of the high priest. 

When entering the Holy of Holies the high priest took off the tunic and wore only his linen clothing. As the high priest emerged from the Holy of Holies he put the tunic on. This was understood as representing his birth from the Holy of Holies or from the presence of God and his taking upon himself a mortal body. The early Christians understood the Savior as being the archetypal high priest and the depiction of Mary weaving the temple veil while pregnant symbolizes her creating the physical body of the Great High Priest. (143)

The Stable

The setting of the birth of the Savior in the stable is very well known. Artistic depictions of the nativity show Joseph and Mary with the child Jesus in the stable surrounded by animals. It is interesting to note that when John had a vision of the Lord upon his throne in Heaven the throne was surrounded by all kinds of animals (see Rev. 4:6-9). 

To the Israelites the Holy of Holies represented the dwelling place of God. The Ark of the Covenant was understood as God's throne so anytime a prophet describes seeing the throne the vision can be understood as having its setting in the temple. The setting of the nativity in a stable, therefore, suggests that it can be understood as occurring in the Holy of Holies of the temple. 

The Swaddling Clothes

On pages 75 and 76 Barker argues that Luke mentions the swaddling clothes as an allusion to the high priestly garments. She states:

"She [Mary] wrapped him in swaddling clothes is, literally, 'she wrapped him around'. Why mention the baby's clothes? Because the clothing of the 'newly born' high priest was an important part of his becoming the Son... In an early Christian wisdom text, Wisdom the Mother gives to her son 'a high priestly garment that is woven from every Wisdom'."

The Manger

Also on page 76 Barker mentions that the Hebrew words for manger and Jerusalem are almost identical and there is apparent word play intended by the Gospel writers. The intent of this wordplay seems to be to reinforce the setting of the the events of the birth of Jesus Christ in the temple in Jerusalem. 

The Ox and the Ass

In early Christian art the creche scene is often depicted with an ass and an ox looking into the manger (see figure above). It appears that this convention alludes to Isaiah's condemnation of the Israelites found in Isaiah 1:3. The condemnation appears to apply specifically to the ruling class of Isaiah's day and which the early Christians applied to the ruling class of the their day. The words for 'ox' and 'ass' in Hebrew are similar to the words for 'prince' and 'priest'. The early Christians apparently utilized this word play to suggest that while the ox and ass recognized the Savior for who he was the political and religious leaders of his day did not.

Additionally, the utilization of the ox and ass in their art work may have been an effort to place the birth of the Savior symbolically in the Holy of Holies. In the Holy of Holies of Solomon's Temple there were two large cherubim in addition to the ark (see below). The ox and the ass may have represented these two creatures.

On page 77 of her book Barker states: 

"The ox and the ass looking into the manger were part of the nativity scene from the very beginning, even though they are not mentioned in the text-testimony to the importance of sources other than written... The Habakkuk prophecy, 'Be known in the midst of the two creatures, be recognized in the drawing near of the years, be manifested in the coming of the Time.' (LXX Hab. 3.2) assumed these two creatures, but linked them to the two cherubim of the ark and the throne where the king had sat as the Lord."

There are many more fascinating details that Margaret Barker discusses in her book which are too numerous to mention here, but it has helped me recognize what a rich and fascinating account we have of the Savior's birth. I highly recommend the book.

The Dead Sea Scrolls Online

The Israeli government has recently put images of the Dead Sea Scrolls online. They can be viewed at: http://www.deadseascrolls.org.il/

Brigham City Temple Fountain

Brigham City Temple Fountain

This past summer my wife and I took our kids to the Brigham City Temple open house. I was very impressed by the beauty and design of the temple and enjoyed having the chance to see it prior to its dedication. It was a wonderful experience but the thing that impressed me the most was not the building itself but the fountain on the temple grounds. It is not a large or especially spectacular fountain but its symbolism is very striking. To understand its symbols it is helpful to understand the ancient Hebrew conception of the cosmos and how they understood the creation. It is also helpful to understand the prophecies regarding the New Jerusalem and the temple which is to be built there.

The Cosmic Mountain

In his essay entitled "What is a Temple? A Preliminary Typology" found in Temples of the Ancient World, John Lundquist explains that "The temple is the architectural embodiment of the cosmic mountain" (84) and that "the cosmic mountain represents the primordial hillock, the place that first emerged from the waters covering the earth during the creative process" (86).  To the ancient Israelites the earth emerged from the ocean of chaos during the creation (see Genesis 1:9-10). They believed that the first point to emerge was the cosmic mountain (aka the axis mundi or the omphalos) which they associated with the Garden of Eden (see Parry, Donald W. "Garden of Eden:Prototype Sanctuary" in Temples of the Ancient World, pp. 133-37).

Therefore, to put it simply the cosmic mountain, the Garden of Eden and the temple were all associated with one another. The temple was seen as a representation of the creation and the Garden of Eden.

Sacred Waters

Genesis 2:9-14 explains there was a river that began in Eden and split into four branches. Each river was thought to have flowed to one of the four cardinal directions (see Brown, Matthew B. The Gate of Heaven, p. 28). The names of the rivers were the Gihon, Pison, Euphrates and Hiddekel. In several places in the scriptures rivers are associated with the temple. John the Revelator saw in his vision a river flowing from the throne of God and the Tree of Life which were located in the temple (see Rev. 22:1). Nephi also saw the Tree of Life in vision which was associated with a fountain of living water (see 1 Nephi 11:25) and Ezekiel saw in vision a river flowing from threshold of the temple (see Ezekiel 47:1-12).

The fountain on the east side of the Brigham City temple seems to incorporate these themes into the design of the fountain. It is reminiscent of the cosmic mountain rising up from the waters of chaos from which is flowing the four rivers of Eden and it is a very appropriate symbol for a temple.

The New Jerusalem


Folio 55r of the Bamberg Apocalypse depicts
the angel showing John the New Jerusalem,
with the Lamb of God at its center.

 In John’s apocalyptic vision of the last days he saw the New Jerusalem descend from heaven and heard a voice from heaven proclaim that “the tabernacle of God is with men” (see Rev. 21). He then was shown the city in detail and saw that the city was laid out in a perfect square which was aligned to the compass.

Each side of the city square contained three gates for a total of twelve. Verse 22 explains that there was no temple in the city because the entire city itself was a temple.

Additionally, in chapter 22 John explains that he saw a river of pure water flowing out of the throne of God and of the Lamb and the Tree of Life. 

The Brigham City Temple fountain seems to reflect this imagery with its design. The fountain itself is laid out in a square with three water channels on each of its four sides similar to the gates of the New Jerusalem. Also, the fountain preserves the imagery of the fountain of living water flowing out from the abode of God.

So, while the fountain at the Brigham City Temple is not particularly large or grand it is a fascinating object. It’s simple design incorporates many temple related symbols including the creation, the Garden of Eden and New Jerusalem and to me is the most interesting portion of the entire structure.

The True Meaning of Hanukkah

In 2012 Hanukkah runs from December 8th to December 16th. The following op-ed was published in the New York Times recently:

By HILARY LEILA KRIEGER

Published: December 7, 2012

WHEN my brother was in kindergarten, where he was the only Jewish student, a parent organizing enrichment activities asked my mother to tell the class the story of Hanukkah. My mother obligingly brought in a picture book and began to read about foreign conquerors who were not letting Jews in ancient Israel worship freely, even defiling their temple, until a scrappy group led by the Maccabee family overthrew one of the most powerful armies in the world and won their liberty.

The woman was horrified.

The Hanukkah story, she interrupted, was not about war. It was about the miracle of an oil lamp that burned for eight days without replenishing. She urged my mother to close the book. My mother refused.

The woman wasn’t alone. Many Americans, Jews as well as Christians, think that the legend of the long-lasting oil is the root of Hanukkah’s commemoration. And perhaps that mistake is no surprise, given that for many the holiday has morphed into “Christmas for Jews,” echoing the message of peace on earth accompanied by gift giving. In doing so, the holiday’s own message of Jewish survival and faith has been diluted.

Hanukkah is one of the most widely celebrated Jewish holidays in America. But unlike Rosh Hashana, Yom Kippur and Passover (or even the lesser-known Sukkot and Shavuot), all of which are explicitly mentioned in the Torah, Hanukkah gets only a brief, sketchy reference in the Talmud, the voluminous collection of Jewish oral law and tradition written down hundreds of years after the Maccabees’ revolt.

There for the first time the miracle of the oil is recorded: the ancient temple in Jerusalem held an eternal flame, but after the desecration by the foreign invaders — including the sacrificing of pigs, a non-kosher animal, on the altar — only one day’s worth of purified oil remained. Yet the faithful went ahead and lighted it.

The oil burned in the rededicated temple for eight days, long enough for a new supply to arrive. Hence the practice of lighting candles for eight nights to observe Hanukkah, which means dedication in Hebrew. (Perhaps just as significantly, the reference to oil also gave rise to a holiday tradition of eating foods like potato pancakes and doughnuts that had been cooked in it.)

Though Hanukkah is a minor Jewish holiday, 19th-century activists in America promoted it to encourage their coreligionists to take pride in their heritage. During the 20th century it was embraced more broadly by Jews who wanted to fit in with other Americans celebrating the holiday season — and to make their kids feel better about not getting anything from Santa.

It helped, of course, that Hanukkah falls near Christmas on the calendar and traditionally involved candles and small monetary gifts. Over time, children began receiving grander presents, and Hanukkah-themed season’s greeting cards proliferated. Some families even started to purchase “Hanukkah bushes,” small trees often decked out with Stars of David and miniature Maccabees.

By the 1980s, when I was a child, menorahs had been placed next to mangers in the public square and

Hanukkah songs had been incorporated into winter holiday concerts. Despite this recognition, I still felt excluded enough to brag to classmates that my holiday was better than Christmas, since it had eight days of gift giving, instead of one.

While elevating Hanukkah does a lot of good for children’s morale, ignoring or sanitizing its historical basis does a great disservice to the Jewish past and present.

The original miracle of Hanukkah was that a committed band of people led a successful uprising against a much larger force, paving the way for Jewish independence and perhaps keeping Judaism itself from disappearing. It’s an amazing story, resonant with America’s own founding, that offers powerful lessons about standing up for one’s convictions and challenging those in power.

Many believe the rabbis in the Talmud recounted the miracle of the light alongside the military victory because they did not want to glorify war. That in itself is an important teaching, as are the holiday’s related messages of renewal, hope and turning away from darkness.

But it’s a story with dark chapters as well, including the Maccabean leaders’ religious zealotry, forced conversions and deadly attacks on their neighbors. These transgressions need to be grappled with. And that is precisely what the most important Jewish holidays do: Jews on Passover spill out wine from their glasses to acknowledge Egyptian suffering caused by the 10 plagues, and congregations at Rosh Hashana read and struggle with God’s order to Abraham to bind his son Isaac as a sacrifice.

If we’re going to magnify Hanukkah, we should do so because it offers the deeper meaning and opportunity for introspection that the major Jewish holidays provide.

Hilary Leila Krieger is the Washington bureau chief for The Jerusalem Post.

Journey of Faith Online

Lehi-Nephi by Avard Fairbanks

The Journey of Faith films are now available for viewing online. They can be found at: http://journeyoffaithfilms.com/.

I own both films and highly reccomend them.

The Temple in 3 Nephi 27

Christ in the Americas by Minerva Teichart

This afternoon I was reading 3 Nephi 27 and was reminded of what a remarkable chapter in the Book of Mormon it is. One of the things that makes the Book of Mormon exciting is the fact that temple imagery and themes are so pervasive in the text and 3 Nephi 27 is a case in point. The following are some of the temple themes that can be drawn out of the text:

Prayer

In verses 1-3 the disciples are praying regarding a disputation that had arisen over what the name of the church should be. The Savior appears to the disciples and begins to teach them. Verse 2 explains that the Savior did appear in their "midst". This suggests that when he appeared he was surrounded by the disciples. Clearly the disciples were engaged in praying in what we would call a prayer circle.

New Name

In verse 6 the Savior expounds briefly on the taking upon oneself the name of the Jesus Christ and its attendant blessings. Implicit in the taking of a new name is the taking of a new identity and the Savior returns to this idea in verse 27.

Penalty

In verse 11 the Savior pronounces a penalty upon those who fail to live up to their covenants.

Ascension

In verses 14-15 the Savior draws an analogy between his being lifted up on the cross and his followers being lifted up by the Father to join with the Savior and enter his presence.

Washing

There are at least a couple references to washing or being made clean in the chapter. They can be found in verses 16 and 19.

Investiture

Verses 19 and 20 reference having clean and unspotted clothing or garments.

Anointing

In verse 20 the Savior discusses receipt of the Holy Ghost which is tied to being anointed with oil. Stay tuned, I plan to update this post and elaborate a little more on this.

A Charge Not to Reveal Sacred Things

The Savior issues this charge in verse 23.

Request for Divine Audience

In verse 29 there is a description of one coming before the partition between the Holy and profane with a promise of further light and knowledge to those who seek it.

Angels

Verse 30. Interestingly a common theme of throne theophanies found in the scriptures is the vision of angels. When I update this post I will elaborate on this a little more as well.

The Gate

See verse 33. I will treat this in more depth in the future as well. I'm in a hurry because I want to finish this post before we take the kids to dinner at grandma's house. Shabbat Shalom!

Forn Spǫll Fira: No Room for an Inn

Edward Burne-Jones (1833-1898),"Nativity" (1875), William Morris stained glass window, St. Martins in the Bull Ring, Birmingham city center, south window.

This afternoon I read this post on John Gee's blog and wanted to repost it in it's entirety because I enjoyed reading it. Here it is:

An entire folk tradition has sprung up based on the translation of Luke 2:7 which explains that Jesus was laid in a manger “because there was no room for them in the inn” (KJV). The King James translators did not invent the phrase. Tyndale rendered the passage as “because there was no roume for them within, in the hostrey.” Both translations match the Vulgate, which says “non erat locus in diversorio” and a diversorium is an inn. Thus nativity plays will often include an innkeeper and his wife and other parts derived from this particular phrase in the scripture. Sometimes in flights of artistic fantasy Joseph wanders from inn to inn seeking lodging only to find them all full. Bethlehem was a small town when Jesus was born. How many inns did they have? In the scriptural accounts, it is in the singular; Bethlehem could not have had more than one. One suspects it did not have that many.

But there is something wrong here. Joseph and Mary came to Bethlehem because of the need to register for the census which was made for taxation purposes (Luke 2:1). If it was simply a matter of registering for the poll tax, the tax that Rome levied on its subjects simply for drawing breath, then they could register wherever they were. They could certainly register in Nazareth without having to travel to Bethlehem. The reason that they would have to register in Bethlehem is if they owned property there.[1] But if they owned property in Bethlehem, why were they staying in an inn?

The Greek word translated as “inn” is καταλύματι, the dative form of καταλύμα. What is a καταλύμα? It “designates the residence of the king or the general when he is staying outside” his normal residence.[2] It can also refer to an assigned lodging for a soldier or functionary.[3] It can also refer to an inn.[4] Thus a καταλύμα is “a lodging where one goes, where one stays for a time. The temporary character is constant.”[5]

Thus the word designates wherever Joseph and Mary were staying temporarily. Since Joseph either wholly or partly owned property, he would have either been staying with the relatives who occupied the property (in the case of part ownership) or with the tenants who were renting (in the case of whole ownership). As houses tended to be on the small side, the couple perhaps might have felt that there was more privacy with the animals. By the time the wise men visited, they were back in the house (Matthew 2:11).

A careful reading of the nativity story indicates that there is no room for an inn.

---

[1] Sherman L. Wallace, Taxation in Egypt from Augustus to Diocletian (New York: Greenwood Press, 1937), 98-104.

[2] Geneviève Husson, OIKIA: le vocabulaire de la maison privée en Égypte d’après les papyrus grecs (Paris: La Sorbonne, 1983), 133.

[3] Husson, OIKIA, 134.

[4] Husson, OIKIA, 134-35.

[5] Husson, OIKIA, 135.

Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil

I recently read Jeffrey Bradshaw's paper entitled Mormonism's Satan and the Tree of Life and thought this paragraph was really insightful so I wanted to share. Here it is:

The Hebrew expression “knowledge of good and evil” in the description of one of the trees can mean knowledge of what is good and bad, or of happiness and misery—or else knowledge of “everything” if good and evil is taken as a merism. Perhaps the most relevant hint on the meaning of the phrase comes from Deuteronomy 1:39, which speaks of little children “who… have no knowledge of good and evil,” suggesting “that they are not legally responsible for their actions.” In this sense, the term aptly refers not to abstract conceptual knowledge but rather to the kind of “knowledge which infancy lacks and experience acquires.”

Wolves in Sheeps Clothing

In Matthew 7:15 the Savior warns his followers of false prophets who would come to them in sheep's clothing to conceal their identity as rabid wolves. The analogy is easily understood. The false prophets would appear outwardly to be ordinary members of the Christian community while concealing their true natures as enemies of the community and enemies of the Savior who is the Good Shepherd. The Savior often compared his followers to sheep and portrayed himself as their shepherd (see John 10).

Additionally, it is significant that the Savior depicts these false prophets as wearing the "clothing" of the sheep. Clothing is often closely associated in the scriptures with temple rituals. The word from which "clothing" was translated is ἔνδυμα (enduma). The root of enduma is ἐνδύω (enduō - from which our word endow comes) which means " to invest with clothing (literally or figuratively): - array, clothe (with), endue, have (put) on" (Strong's Greek Concordance). Exodus 28 describes the sacred vestments of the temple priests which were an integral part of the rituals of the temple just as the temple clothing is today in LDS temples. Clothing also serves the purpose of identifying the wearer as belonging to a particular group (for more on this I recommend Daniel Belnap's article in Studies in the Bible and Antiquity entitled "Clothed with Salvation: The Garden, the Veil, Tabitha, and Christ").

Therefore, the false prophets in the Savior's analogy are clothed in the ritual clothing that identify them as members of the community.

The story of Korihor in Alma 30 provides additional insights to the characteristics and tactics of false prophets. There are a few I wish to point out:

1. He was the recipient of a false spiritual manifestation (Alma 30:53).
2. He specifically targeted the leaders of the church with criticism in his efforts to destroy the faith of the Nephites (Alma 30:31).
3. He appealed to the Nephite's sense of pride (Alma 30:17-18).

In our day false prophets have followed a very similar pattern to that found in the story of Korihor and have followed the pattern established by the Savior in Matthew 5 by coming to the Saints dressed in sheep's clothing in order to lead them into a false system of salvation. On one occasion the Prophet Joseph Smith gave a key to detecting and ferreting out false prophets:

"I will give you one of the Keys of the mysteries of the Kingdom. It is an eternal principle, that has existed with God from all eternity: That man who rises up to condemn others, finding fault with the Church, saying that they are out of the way, while he himself is righteous, then know assuredly, that that man is in the high road to apostasy; and if he does not repent, will apostatize, as God lives." (HC 3:385)

On another occasion he is reported to have said:

"I will give you a key that will never rust, - if you will stay with the majority of the Twelve Apostles, and the records of the Church, you will never be led astray." (William G. Nelson, in “Joseph Smith, the Prophet,” Young Woman’s Journal, Dec. 1906, p. 543).

Based on the teachings of Joseph Smith those who come forward to claim that the leaders of the Church are in error unwittingly identify themselves as false teachers regardless of whatever else they may say. It seems especially ironic to me that false prophets often recognize Joseph Smith's prophetic calling while rejecting his successors. How can they claim to follow him while at the same time rejecting his teachings?

Safety is to be found by following the Lord's anointed and not speaking evil of them. If we do so the Savior has given us a promise that we will not be overcome. This promise is found in Joseph Smith Matthew 1:9-11:

"And many false prophets shall arise, and shall deceive many; And because iniquity shall abound, the love of many shall wax cold; But he that remaineth steadfast and is not overcome, the same shall be saved." (emphasis added)

Don't be deceived by those who claim to have more light and knowledge than the leading authorities of the Church. Their message may be very, very compelling. They exploit those who are seeking further light and knowledge by offering what appears to be deeper understandings. However enlightening and truthful this information seems it is invariably mingled with false doctrines and ideas and those who espouse those doctrines often set themselves up as a light while denigrating the Lord's anointed. Run as far away as you can from those who criticize the Church's leaders. They do not have your best interests in mind but are puffed up in their own self importance. True teachers will always remain within the channels the Lord has established in his Church and will foster a sense of loyalty. Use the keys the Prophet has provided and do not fall into the traps others set to ensnare.

What is Perfection?

Perhaps no concept in the Christain world has caused more discouragement and hopelessness than the notion of perfection. In Matthew 5:48 the Savior commands all of his followers to be perfect and all conscientous Christains strive for this ideal. However, it is easy to become overwhelmed and feel completely defeated when striving for perfection when we use the conventional English definition of perfection.

Webster's dictionary defines the word "perfect" as: "being entirely without fault or defect : flawless". Using this definition it is natural to conclude that when the Savior commands us to be perfect he is commanding us to be sinless. Using this definition it is easy to become disheartened because as King Benjamin explains in Mosiah 4:29: "I cannot tell you all the things whereby ye may commit sin; for there are divers ways and means, even so many that I cannot number them."

As Joseph Smith explained: "We believe the Bible to be the word of God as far as it is translated correctly..." (Articles of Faith 1:8, emphasis added) and in the case of Matthew 5:48 the English translators of the King James version of the Bible chose a word that does not properly convey what the Savior was teaching.

The original language of the New Testament was Greek and the word from which "perfect" was translated is τέλειος (teleios) which means "complete" in the sense of having finished a journey or reached a goal.  Jack Welch points out in his book "The Sermon At the Temple and the Sermon On the Mount" that teleios "is used in Greek religious literature to describe the person who has become fully initiated in the rituals of the religion." Furthermore he states that "generally in the Epistle to the Hebrews, its usage follows a 'special use' from Hellenistic Judaism, where the word teleioo means 'to put someone in the position in which he can come or stand before God.'" (Welch 58-59, emphasis added).

It is interesting to note that there is a subtle difference in the command to be perfect as found in Matthew 5:48 and 3 Nephi 12:48. In the sermon given at the temple among the descendants of Lehi he gives the command to be perfect followed by the phrase "even as I, or your Father who is in heaven is perfect" (emphasis added). In the account given of the Sermon on the Mount the phrase "even as I" is not included.

The Savior delivered the Sermon on the Mount in Palestine as a mortal prior to his crucifixion and resurrection but he delivered the sermon found in 3 Nephi after his resurrection. We know that while he was mortal he had not yet ascended to the father to stand in his presence. Indeed even shortly after his resurrection he still had not yet done so as he explained to Mary in the garden (See John 20:17). However, it is clear from the Book of Mormon that he did not appear to the descendants of Lehi until after his ascension to the Father (See 3 Nephi 10:18 and 3 Nephi 11:12).

Therefore, in the sense of perfection as being fully initiated into the rituals of the religion and being in a position in which to stand before God, Jesus Christ was not perfect until after his ascension. Also, we can conclude that it is not necessary to try to make oneself sinless in the absolute sense in order to be perfect or teleios. Perfection in the sense of sinlessness is an unrealistic and ultimately counter-productive expectation, an expectation that one is hard pressed to find in the scriptures. Certainly, obedience to the commandments of God and personal purity are essential to the Lord's plan and are a requirement to achieve ritual perfection but sinlessness is not required to obtain God's approval and to qualify for his highest blessings.

What did the Ark of the Covenant look like?

Moses and Joshua bowing before the Ark, painting by James Jacques Joseph Tissot, c. 1900

What did the Ark of the Covenant look like?

Let's look at the description given in Exodus 25:10-20:

Verse 10:

• It is called an "ark:" (Heb. ארון - "A box: - ark, chest, coffin." Strong's Concordance).
• It was made of acacia wood.
• The dimensions were: "Two and a half cubits long and a cubit and a half wide and a cubit and a half high." A cubit was approximately 20 inches long.

Verse 11:

• It was overlain "with pure gold" inside and out.
• There was some kind of crown or molding around the outside of it.

Verse 12:

• There were 4 gold rings - one attached to each of its four feet.

Verse 13-15:

• Poles of acacia wood overlain with gold were inserted through the rings for the purpose of carrying it.

Verse 17:

• There was a lid or covering often translated as "mercy seat" (Heb. כפרת - kapporeth. "A lid [used only of the cover of the sacred Ark]: - mercy seat." Strong's Concordance).
• The dimensions of the mercy were two and a half cubits by one and a half cubits.

Verse 18-19:

•  On top of the "mercy seat" there were two cherubim on each end.

Verse 20:

• The wings of the cherubim "covered" (Heb. סָכַךְ - sakak. "to entwine as a screen; by implication to fence in, cover over, [figuratively] protect: - cover, defence, defend, hedge in, join together, set, shut up." Strong's Concordance) the "mercy seat".
• The faces of the cherubim faced one another toward the "mercy seat".

The "Mercy Seat"

The description of the ark is fairly straightforward until we come to the description of the kapporeth (mercy seat). The word "kapporeth" shares its root with kaphar (כָּפַר) which means "to cover" or "to atone" in the sense of hiding or covering up sin. The Hebrew name of the "mercy seat" then does not make it clear that the kapporeth was a seat.

However, despite the ambiguity of the description in Exodus 25 it is clear from elsewhere in the Bible that the kapporeth was indeed a seat or throne of some kind.

1 Samuel 4:4 and 2 Samuel 6:2, in reference to the Ark, describe the Lord "dwelling between the cherubim". The word "dwelling" is translated from yashab (יָשַׁב) which can also be translated as "to sit down as in judgement". In addition, multiple prophets have seen in vision the heavenly temple wherein the Lord was enthroned in the Holy of Holies (see Isaiah 6:1; Ezekiel 10:1 and 1 Nephi 1:8).

The "Cherubim"

The cultural proximity of the Israelites and Canaanites was very close. In fact it has been argued that "Israelite religion [was] a subset of Canaanite religion." (See Peterson, Nephi and His Asherah, Journal of Book of Mormon Studies: Volume - 9, Issue - 2, Pages: 16–25 Provo, Utah: Maxwell Institute, 2000). As a result we can get a pretty good idea of how the Israelites may have depicted the cherubim on the ark by looking at Canaanite representations of cherubim.

Pictured below is the sarcophagus of Ahiram who was the king of Byblos around the time of King David. Interestingly he is depicted sitting atop a cherubic throne toward the left side of the photo and it is likely the Ark of the Covenant looked similar in some respects to this throne.

Below is another depiction of a cherub throne found on an ivory from Megiddo dating to approximately 1200 BC.

We can also find clues to the appearance of the Ark of the Covenant from another of the Israelites' neighbors, Egypt. It must be remembered that immediately prior to building the Ark the Israelites had spent several generations living in Egypt and must have been heavily influenced by its culture. It seems reasonable to assume Israel's artistic representations would have reflected that influence.

Interestingly, in Egypt we find examples of portable thrones carried on poles just as the Ark of the Covenant was. Below is an image of Ramesses III (ca. 1182-1151 BC) on a portable throne from Medinet Habu.

Therefore, by studying the description of the Ark in the Bible and by examining other ancient examples of portable cherub thrones we can develop a pretty good idea of what the Ark of the Covenant looked like.

Yom Kippur - The Day of Atonement

On Tuesday and Wednesday this week Jews around the world will be celebrating the most sacred day in the Jewish calendar - Yom Kippur (יום כפור) or the Day of Atonement. Yesterday at the Temple on Mount Zion Conference Bill Hamblin gave a presentation entitled "Jacob and the Israelite Day of Atonement" which can be viewed here. It was a fascinating lecture wherein he argued that the sermon given by Jacob in 2 Nephi 6-10 was given at the temple on the Day of Atonement. Professor Hamblin made his point by showing that there are a number of themes contained in Jacob's sermon that are common with the Day of Atonement.

The following is a summary of the themes that Dr. Hamblin presented:

• New Year
• The Temple
• The High Priest
• Pilgrimage
• Creation narrative
• Prophecy
• Israel blessed by the High Priest
• Covenant
• God judges Israel
• Atonement
• Expulsion of Satan/Azazel
• Water cleansing
• Robes/investiture
• Mercy
• Reading law
• Memorial
• Way, gate, gatekeeper
• Revelation of ineffable name
• Removal of robes
• Confession
• Fast/feast
• Drink offering
• Holy of Holies
• Hymn

It is interesting to note that most, if not all, of these themes can also be found in our modern endowment ceremony. I believe that the endowment ceremony can be understood to be a Day of Atonement experience with the participant acting in the capacity of the High Priest.

The Temple on Mount Zion

Saturday is the Temple on Mount Zion Conference at the Provo Public Library. It is free and open to the public and looks like there will be some fascinating presentations given. It is being held in honor of Matthew B. Brown who passed away about a year ago.

The program is pasted below and I will be in attendance. Hope to see you there!

Program:

1. 9:15-9:20 AM, David Seely
“Welcome and Opening Prayer”

2. 9:20-9:30 AM, Jamie Brown and Matt Roper
“In Memoriam Matthew Brown”

3. 9:30-9:55 AM, David R. and Jo Ann H. Seely
“Creation and Temple”

4. 10:00-10:25 AM, Jeffrey M. Bradshaw
“The Ark and the Tent: Temple Symbolism in the Story of Noah”

5. 10:30-10:55 AM, John Gee
“Edfu and Exodus”

6. 11:00-11:25 AM, David Calabro
“The Divine Handclasp in the Hebrew Bible and in Ancient Near Eastern Iconography”

7. 11:30-11:55 AM, Donald W. Parry
“Ancient Sacred Vestments: Scriptural Symbols and Meanings”

8. 12:00 AM - 1:30 PM, Lunch Break

9. 1:30-1:55 PM, Mack Stirling
“Job: An LDS Reading”

10. 2:00-2:25 PM, David J. Larsen
“From Dust to Exalted Crown: Royal and Temple Themes Common to the Psalms and the Dead Sea
Scrolls “

11. 2:30-2:55 PM, Stephen D. Ricks
“Psalm 23 and the ‘Terrible Questions’”

12. 3:00-3:25 PM, David Bokovoy
“Holiness to the Lord: Biblical Temple Imagery in the Sermons of Jacob the Priest”

13. 3:30-3:55 PM, William Hamblin
“Jacob’s Sermon (2 Nephi 6-10) and the Day of Atonement”

14. 4:00-4:25 PM, Mark Alan Wright
“Axes Mundi: A Comparative Analysis of Nephite and Mesoamerican Temple and Ritual Complexes”

15. 4:30-5:00 PM, Andrew Ehat
“A Torah Harmony”

16. 5:00-5:25 PM, Richard O. Cowan
“Latter-day Houses of the Lord: Developments in Their Design and Function”

17. 5:30 PM, Conclusion

Exodus 4:27-28 - Aaron's Endowment

In Exodus 4:27-28 the story is told of the meeting of Moses and Aaron following Moses' call to deliver the Israelites from Egyptian bondage.

On its surface this account seems (at least to modern individuals) to be nothing more than a story told in passing to fill in the gap and inform the reader about the meeting of the two brothers. However, there are elements in this narrative that suggest this meeting is to be understood in the context of the temple and that perhaps Aaron at this time was the recipient of temple ordinances. The elements are as follows:

1. The Lord instructs Aaron to meet Moses in the "wilderness" (מדבר - midbar)*.
2. Moses and Aaron meet in the "mount of God" (הר האלהים - har haelohim).
3. In the mount, Moses teaches Aaron all the "signs" (אותים - othim) which Moses had been given from the Lord.

מדבר (Midbar)

In Hebrew the term from which the word "wilderness" is translated is מדבר (midbar). The root of midbar is דבר (dabar) which means "to arrange". To the ancient Israelites the wilderness was a place of order which the Lord had ordered or "arranged" during the creation. This was in contrast to the chaos of the deep out of which the ordered creation emerged. Chaos was the realm of Satan while order was the realm of God. The temple was perhaps the highest manifestation of order on earth. Every aspect of the temple was ordered, from the structure itself to the rites performed therein (See Exodus 25:8-9). Therefore, it is not surprising that the wilderness has served as a substitute temple, or a place where individuals can draw close to Deity. For example, the Savior went into the wilderness to be with God (See JST Matthew 4:1) and Joseph Smith experienced his first vision in the wilderness (See JS-H 1:14).

Another word which shares the same root as מדבר is דביר (debir) which is used to describe the Holy of Holies or the Most Holy Place in the temple (translated as "oracle" in 1 Kings 6:16). It was the דביר where the Lord had his throne (the ark) and into which the High Priest entered on the Day of Atonement. Therefore, the presence of מדבר is one indicator that the account of the meeting between Moses and Aaron is connected with temple.

הר האלהים (Har haElohim)

Exodus 4:27 informs us that the meeting between the brothers took place in the האר האלהים "mount of God" (aka Horeb see Exodus 3:1). The connection between mountains and temples has been firmly well established (Read more here) and anciently mountains were natural temples where prophets went to not only ascend closer to God but to enter his presence (See 1 Nephi 11:1; Moses 1:1-2; Moses 7:2-4). In this respect they are closely connected with the Holy of Holies specifically. It was into the Holy of Holies that the High Priest entered each year during the Day of Atonement and symbolically came into God's presence. It is interesting to note that after going into the wilderness to be with God the Savior ascended a mountain and there beheld a vision of all the kingdoms of the earth similar to the visions of Moses and Enoch after they had entered God's presence (See JST Matt. 4:8; Moses 1:28-29 ; Moses 7:2-4). Therefore, the presence of הר האלהים indicates another connection with the temple.

אותים (othim)

The KJV version of Exodus 4:28 translates the word אותים (othim) into English as "signs". In a superficial reading of this account one may assume that the signs mentioned in this verse refer to the signs the Lord gave to Moses earlier in the chapter to demonstrate to the Israelites that Moses truly was sent by the Lord. However, the presence of מדבר and הר האלהים indicate that this may not be the case. Also, clues found in אותים itself may indicate that this may not be the case.

In certain instances in the Old Testament there are places where אותים is found in a ritual, covenant making context. The word can also be translated into English as "tokens" as found in Genesis 9:12 and Genesis 17:11 where it is found in the context of covenant making. Therefore, it is possible that the presence of אותים in this passage may indicate the presence of covenant making involving Moses and Aaron. Modern temples are places where covenants are made with the Lord and Latter-Day Saints understand that the covenants and ordinances found in modern temples had their counterparts anciently (see D&C 124:38).

In addition, the fact that אותים can be translated as "signs" or "tokens" is another indicator that the account is to be understood in a temple context. In addition to receiving covenants temples are places where righteous individuals go to be taught certain signs and tokens. Brigham Young explained it this way:

“Your endowment is, to receive all those ordinances in the house of the Lord, which are necessary for you, after you have departed this life, to enable you to walk back to the presence of the Father, passing the angels who stand as sentinels, being enabled to give them the key words, the signs and tokens, pertaining to the holy Priesthood, and gain your eternal exaltation in spite of earth and hell” (Discourses of Brigham Young, sel. John A. Widtsoe [Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1941], p. 416).

Since we know that the endowment ceremony is not unique to our dispensation we can safely assume that it served a similar, if not identical, purpose anciently and there is very strong evidence that this was indeed the case. Therefore, the signs or tokens that Moses taught Aaron may have been the signs and tokens given in temples at the time.

Conclusion

The presence of the terms מדבר, הר האלהים and אותים indicate that the account of Aaron traveling into the wilderness to meet with Moses on the Mount of God can be understood in a temple context. According to the teachings of Brigham Young, as discussed above, the purpose of the temple is to enable righteous individuals to ascend into the presence of the Lord by providing them with the signs and tokens which are necessary for that to happen.

We know that Moses had previously received these signs and tokens for himself because the text mentions that he had and he had evidently utilized those signs and tokens on at least one occasion (see Moses 1). Perhaps at this point in the narrative Aaron had not received this ordinance and the Lord wished for him to enjoy the blessings associated with it before embarking on his mission with Moses as this seems to be the model - at least in later dispensations (see Luke 24:49 and D&C 38:38).

In Exodus 7:1-2 the Lord explains that Moses would be a god to Pharaoh and that Aaron would be his (Moses') prophet. In this sense then, as Aaron traveled into the wilderness and ascended the mountain to meet Moses he was ascending into the presence of the Lord. If we accept that Aaron did at some point during his life receive his temple blessings it seems certain that this was the point when it occurred.

*Disclaimer: I have been studying Hebrew casually for the past year or two when I have a break from work/family/church responsibilities, but by no means have I mastered the language. I have given it my best shot to make the information regarding the Hebrew as accurate as possible.

Note: the inclusion of the word נשק (nashaq - translated as "kissed") may be another indicator that this account is to be understood in the context of the temple. It appears as though this word could be translated as "embraced" although I felt like I couldn't make a strong enough case to include it in the main portion of my blog posting. The ritual embrace is also connected to the temple and if you would like to read more about it there is an interesting article at the By Common Consent blog.

Ancient Temples and Sacred Symbols by Bill Hamblin

Exodus 3:14 - I AM THAT I AM

I have commented on this verse in a previous post here.

Exodus 3:5

"Put off thy shoes from off thy feet for the place whereon thou standest is holy ground"

Why would the Lord require Moses to remove his shoes? Here is Adam Clarke's explanation:

"Pulling off the shoes was... an emblem of laying aside the pollutions contracted by walking in the way of sin."

The Burning Bush

In Exodus 3, the curious story is told of Moses' encounter with the burning bush where the Lord (יהוה - Yahweh or Jehovah) speaks with Moses from the midst of the bush regarding his mission to deliver the Israelites out of Egyptian bondage. While the idea of God speaking from the midst of a burning bush may seem foreign to modern readers it was not an unfamiliar theme to the ancient Israelites and carried meaning not immediately obvious to us.

The early religion of the Canaanites and the Israelites were closely related (See See Daniel C. Peterson, . "Nephi and his Asherah." Maxwell Institute. Maxwell Institute, n.d. Web. 29 Jun 2012.). In the Canaanite pantheon the chief deity was El, whose wife was a goddess named Asherah (aka Elat - the feminine form of El). Additionally, as Daniel Peterson explains:

"In the earliest Israelite conception, father El had a divine son named Jehovah or Yahweh.⁴ Gradually, however, the Israelite conception of Yahweh absorbed the functions of El and, by the 10th century BC, King Solomon's day, had come to be identified with him.⁵" (Peterson, "Nephi and his Asherah").

Asherah (אשרה) was commonly associated with many different types of trees including the almond tree. She was also associated with the concepts of fruitfulness, posterity, fertility etc. One of the main features in the temple at Jerusalem was the menorah which represented a stylized almond tree (see Exodus 25:31-35). Therefore, in the minds of the Israelites the menorah was probably connected with Asherah. It is interesting to note also that the burning bush and the menorah were both, in essence, burning trees and the Israelites would have undoubtedly have seen this connection as well.

Additionally, rabbinic writings associate the burning bush with the Shekinah or Divine Presence. The word Shekinah is a feminine word (the -ah ending making it feminine) and was thought of as having feminine attributes (See Louis Ginzberg, "Legends of the Jews.", http://philologos.org, Web 30 Jun 2012.).

We see, therefore, a strong connection between Asherah and everything associated with her and the burning bush. That connection is reinforced by the text of Exodus itself and the account of the interaction between Moses and God.

In Exodus 3, verses 2 - 6 describe how Moses sees the bush from afar, draws closer to investigate, is told to remove his shoes and then speaks with the Lord. The Lord then identifies himself to Moses as the God worshipped by Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, but does not use the name יהוה (Jehovah or Yahweh).

However, later in Exodus chapter 6 verses 2 - 3 the Lord explains that:

"I am Jehovah. And I appeared to Abraham, to Isaac and to Jacob, as El Shaddai, but by my name Jehovah I did not make myself known unto them."

In the King James Version (KJV) of the Bible El Shaddai (אֵל שַׁדַּי ) is usually translated as "God Almighty". As has been discussed in other posts, the name/title of El Shaddai carries a female connotation which is generally used while discussing the concepts of fertility, posterity, fruitfulness etc. (See Gen. 28:3 for example).

The Israelites were on the cusp of being delivered from bondage in Egypt and coming into being, as a distinct nation. It would appear, therefore, that God, by appearing in the burning bush, was sending a clear message to Moses and the Israelites that they were about to be delivered (or born) to a fruitful land to be made a fruitful people.